On the Establishment of Agricultural Migration Industry in Israel's Countryside
Keywords:
Agricultural migrant workers, Israel, Thailand, Migration industry, Recruitment companies
Abstract
Migrant workers have become an integral part of the Israeli economy since the 1990s, including agricultural workers who are an essential part of Israel’s agricultural economy. This paper recounted the early stages in the establishment and growth of the agricultural migrant worker industry in Israel when control of this industry was in the hands of the largest organization representing the Israeli farmer, the Moshav Movement (MM). The Israeli Moshav (Pl. Moshavim) is a semi-cooperative agricultural community composed of individual family farms. When the migration to Israel of migrant workers began, the MM had an active and crucial role in the arrival and employment of migrant agricultural workers, laying the foundations that established the country’s agricultural migration industry. In this paper, I will argue that although the recruitment and handling of migrant workers have been portrayed as a great service for needy farmers by a non-profit organization, in actuality, the profit gained in importing migrant workers provided the MM with an economic lifeline during a time of financial crisis. I will also detail the changing power relations among the three players involved in labor migration import: The State, the MM, and the private manpower and recruitment companies. This paper is based on in-depth interviews with various persons involved in the historical process and on the content analysis of documents, minutes from Israeli Parliament meetings, court writings, and the popular press.
References
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Beech, S. E. (2018) Adapting to change in the higher education system: International student mobility as a migration industry. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(4), 610-625.
Belanger, D. (2014) Labor migration and trafficking among Vietnamese migrants in Asia. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653, 87–106.
Boswell, C., & Geddes, A. (2011) Migration and Mobility in the European Union. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Calavita, K. (1992) Inside the State: The Bracero Program, Immigration, and the INS. London: Routledge.
-----. (1994) Italy and the new immigration. In Cornelius, W. A., P. L. Martin & J. F. Hollifield (Eds.) Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective. Redwood City, CA.: Stanford University Press, pp.303-326.
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Chisari, M. (2012) History and governmentality in the Australian citizenship test. Continuum, 26(1), 157-168.
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Cranston, S., Schapendonk, J., & Spaan, E. (2018) New directions in exploring the migration industries: Introduction to special issue. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(4), 543-557.
Elrick, T., & Lewandowska, E. (2008) Matching and making labour demand and supply: Agents in Polish migrant networks of domestic elderly care in Germany and Italy. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34(5), 717-734.
Faist, T. (1997) The crucial meso-level. In Hammar, T. (Ed.) International Migration, Immobility and Development: Multidisciplinary Perspectives Oxford: Berg Publishers.
Farbenblum, B. (2017) Governance of migrant worker recruitment: a rights-based framework for countries of origin. Asian Journal of International Law, 7(1), 152-184.
Findlay, A., & McCollum, D. (2013) Recruitment and employment regimes: Migrant labour channels in the UK's rural agribusiness sector, from accession to recession. Journal of Rural Studies, 30, 10-19.
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Hayes, M. (2015) Introduction: The emerging lifestyle migration industry and geographies of transnationalism, mobility and displacement in Latin America. Journal of Latin American Geography, 14(1), 7-18.
Hedberg, C., & Olofsson, I. (2022) Negotiating the Wild West: Variegated neoliberalisation of the Swedish labour migration regime and the wild berry migration industry. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 54(1), 33-49.
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-----. (2008) Metropolitan migrants: The Migration of Urban Mexicans to the United States. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
-----. (2013) Conceptualizing the migration industry. In: Gammeltoft-Hansen, T. and Sørensen, N. N. (Eds.) The Migration Industry and the Commercialization of International Migration. London: Routledge pp. 42-62.
Jessop, B. (1996) Post-Fordism and the state. In: Bent, G. (Ed.) Comparative Welfare Systems. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 165-183.
Jones, C., Hesterly, W. S., & Borgatti, S. P. (1997) A general theory of network governance: Exchange conditions and social mechanisms. Academy of Management Review, 22 (4), 911-945.
Kaminer, M. )2019.) By the Sweat of Other Brows: Thai Migrant Labor and the Transformation of Israeli Settler Agriculture. PhD Dissertation, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
Kemp, A., & Raijman, R. (2008) Workers and Foreigners: The Political Economy of Labor Migration in Israel. Jerusalem. Jerusalem and tel Aviv:Van-Leer Institute and HaKibbutz HaMehuhad. (Hebrew).
Kemp, A., & Raijman, R. (2014) Bringing in state regulations, private brokers, and local employers: A meso‐level analysis of labor trafficking in Israel. International Migration Review, 48(3), 604-642.
Kendall, G. (1997) 'Governing at a distance': Anglo-Australian relations 1840-70. Australian Journal of Political Science, 32(2), 223-236.
Khan, M. (2019) Contested ground: Network governance in Australia's migration industry. International Migration, 57(3), 295-309.
King, R., Lulle, A., & Melossi, E. (2021) New perspectives on the agriculture–migration nexus. Journal of Rural Studies, 85, 52-58.
Kurlander, Y. (2019) The Marketization of Migration–-On the Emergence, Flourishment and Change of the Recruitment Industry for Agricultural Migrant Workers from
Thailand to Israel. Phd Dissertation, Haifa Hniversity. (Hebrew)
Kurlander, Y., and Cohen, A. (2022). BLAs as sites for the meso-level dynamics of institutionalization: A cross-sectoral comparison. Theoretical Inquiries in law, 23(2). (In press).
Kurlander, Y and Kaminer, M. (2020) "Permanent Workers in the Back Yard": Employing Thai agricultural labor migrants in the Israeli countryside. Horizons in Geography, 98,131-148. (Hebrew)
Kushnirovich, N., Raijman, R., & Barak‐Bianco, A. (2019) The impact of government regulation on recruitment process, rights, wages and working conditions of labor migrants in the Israeli construction sector. European Management Review, 16(4), 909-922.
Kyle, D. (2000) Transnational Peasants: Migrations, Networks, and Ethnicity in Andean Ecuador. Rutgers, NJ: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Light, I. (2013) The migration industry in the United States, 1882–1924. Migration Studies, 1(3), 258-275.
Lindquist, J. (2010) Labour recruitment, circuits of capital and gendered mobility: Reconceptualizing the Indonesian migration industry. Pacific Affairs, 83(1), 115-132.
Lindquist, J., Xiang, B., & Yeoh, B. S. (2012 Opening the black box of migration: Brokers, the organization of transnational mobility and the changing political economy in Asia. Pacific Affairs, 85(1), 7-19.
Menz, G. (2013) The neoliberalized state and the growth of the migration industry. In: Gammeltoft-Hansen, T. and Sørensen, N. N. (Eds.) (Ed) The Migration Industry and the Commercialization of International Migration. London: Routledge, pp. 126-145
Morris, L. (1998) Governing at a distance: The elaboration of controls in British immigration. International Migration Review, 32(4), 949-973.
Nyberg-Sørensen, N. N. (2013) Migration between social and criminal networks: Jumping the remains of the Honduran migration train. In Gammeltoft-Hansen, T. and N. Nyberg- Sorensen (Eds) The Migration Industry and the Commercialization of International Migration . London: Routledg, pp. 256-279.
Pereira, C., Pereira, A., Budal, A., Dahal, S., Daniel-Wrabetz, J., Meshelemiah, J., ... & Pires, R. P. (2021). ‘If you don't migrate, you're a nobody’: Migration recruitment networks and experiences of Nepalese farm workers in Portugal. Journal of Rural Studies, 88, 500-509. .
Pilowski, l. (1999) Present and absent: A study of manpower companies, their handling of migrant workers in Israel, and their relationship with the state. In Nathanson, R. and Achdut, L. (eds.) The New Worker: Wage Earners from Foreign Countries in Israel. Tel-Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuchad Publishing House, pp.41-89. (Hebrew)
Piore, M. J. (1979) Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge Books.
Pittman, P. (2016) Alternative approaches to the governance of transnational labor recruitment. International Migration Review, 50(2), 269–314.
Raijman, R., & Kemp, A. (2016) The institutionalization of labor migration in Israel. Arbor, 192(777), a289.
Salt, J., & Stein, J. (1997) Migration as a business: The case of trafficking. International Migration, 35 (4), 467-494.
Sassen, S. (1988) The mobility of labor and capital: A study in international investment and labor flow. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schwartz M. (1995) Unlimited Guarantees: History and Political Economy in the Cooperative Agriculture of Israel: The Purchasing Cooperatives, the System, and the Moshavim Before and After the Crisis. Jerusalem: Ben-Gurion Univer¬sity Press, 1995 (Hebrew)
Shafir, G., & Peled, Y. (2002) Being Israeli: The dynamics of multiple citizenship (Vol. 16). Cambridge University Press.
Shoham, S. (2017) Pickers and packers: Translocal narratives of returning Thai agriculture labour migrants from Israel (Doctoral dissertation, Master’s Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Global Studies. Berlin: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin).
Spener, D. (2009) Some critical reflections on the migration industry concept. In Rio de Janeiro: Paper presented at the XXVIII International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association (Vol. 11).
Surak, K. (2011) States and Migration Industries in Taiwan, Japan and South Korea. EUI MWP
-----. (2013) Guestworkers: A taxonomy. New Left Review, (84), 84-102.
Tseng, Y. F., & Wang, H. Z. (2013) Governing migrant workers at a distance: Managing the temporary status of guestworkers in Taiwan. International Migration, 51(4), 1-19.
Van Eerbeek, P., & Hedberg, C. (2021) Chameleon brokers: A translocal take on migration industries in the Thai-Swedish wild berry business. Migration Studies, 9(3), 830-851.
Xiang, B., & Lindquist, J. (2014) Migration infrastructure. International Migration Review, 48, S122-S148.
Zhang, Q., & Axelsson, L. (2021) Channeling through bureaucracy: How migration intermediaries and state actors (re)shape Chinese migration to the Swedish restaurant industry. Geoforum, 123, 14-22.
Bartram, D. (1998) Foreign workers in Israel: History and theory. International Migration Review, 32(2), 303-325.
Beech, S. E. (2018) Adapting to change in the higher education system: International student mobility as a migration industry. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(4), 610-625.
Belanger, D. (2014) Labor migration and trafficking among Vietnamese migrants in Asia. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 653, 87–106.
Boswell, C., & Geddes, A. (2011) Migration and Mobility in the European Union. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Calavita, K. (1992) Inside the State: The Bracero Program, Immigration, and the INS. London: Routledge.
-----. (1994) Italy and the new immigration. In Cornelius, W. A., P. L. Martin & J. F. Hollifield (Eds.) Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective. Redwood City, CA.: Stanford University Press, pp.303-326.
Castles, S., & Miller, M. J. (2014) The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Chisari, M. (2012) History and governmentality in the Australian citizenship test. Continuum, 26(1), 157-168.
Cohen, E. (1999) Thai workers in Israeli agriculture. In Nathanson, R. and Achdut, L. (eds.) The New Worker: Wage Earners from Foreign Countries in Israel. Tel-Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuchad Publishing House, pp.155-204. (Hebrew)
Cornelius, W. A., Martin, P. L., & Hollifield, J. F. (1994 Introduction: The ambivalent quest for immigration control. In Cornelius, W. A., P. L. Martin, & J. F. Hollifield (Eds.), Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective. Stanford University Press, pp. 3 - 41.
Cranston, S., Schapendonk, J., & Spaan, E. (2018) New directions in exploring the migration industries: Introduction to special issue. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(4), 543-557.
Elrick, T., & Lewandowska, E. (2008) Matching and making labour demand and supply: Agents in Polish migrant networks of domestic elderly care in Germany and Italy. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34(5), 717-734.
Faist, T. (1997) The crucial meso-level. In Hammar, T. (Ed.) International Migration, Immobility and Development: Multidisciplinary Perspectives Oxford: Berg Publishers.
Farbenblum, B. (2017) Governance of migrant worker recruitment: a rights-based framework for countries of origin. Asian Journal of International Law, 7(1), 152-184.
Findlay, A., & McCollum, D. (2013) Recruitment and employment regimes: Migrant labour channels in the UK's rural agribusiness sector, from accession to recession. Journal of Rural Studies, 30, 10-19.
Freeman, G. P. (1995) Modes of immigration politics in liberal democratic states. International Migration Review, 29 (4), 881-902.
Friese, H. (2012) Border economies: Lampedusa and the nascent migration industry. Shima: The International Journal of Research into Island Cultures, 6 (2), 66-84.
Galnoor, I. (2018) Privatization policy: The burden of proof. In: Paz-Fuchs, A., Mandelkern, R., & Galnoor, I. (Eds.) The Privatization of Israel. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 19-48.
Gammeltoft-Hansen, T., & Sørensen, N. N. (Eds.) (2013) The Migration Industry and the Commercialization of International Migration. London: Routledge.
Geddes, A. (2015) Governing migration from a distance: Interactions between climate, migration, and security in the South Mediterranean. European Security, 24(3), 473-490.
Giladi, D. (1998) The Israeli Economy: Development, Characteristics, Policies, Jerusalem: Israel, Ministry of Education. (Hebrew)
Gordano Peile, C. (2014) The migration industry of connectivity services: A critical discourse approach to the Spanish case in a European perspective. Crossings: Journal of Migration & Culture, 5(1), 57-71.
Goss, J., & Lindquist, B. (1995) Conceptualizing international labor migration: A Structuration Perspective. International Migration Review, 29(2), 317-351.
Grabosky, P. N. (1995) Governing at a distance: Self-regulating green markets. In: Eckersley, R. (Ed.) Markets, the State and the Environment. London: Palgrave pp. 197-228.
Harney, R. F. (1977) The commerce of migration. Canadian Ethnic Studies= Etudes Ethniques au Canada, 9(1), 42-53.
Hayes, M. (2015) Introduction: The emerging lifestyle migration industry and geographies of transnationalism, mobility and displacement in Latin America. Journal of Latin American Geography, 14(1), 7-18.
Hedberg, C., & Olofsson, I. (2022) Negotiating the Wild West: Variegated neoliberalisation of the Swedish labour migration regime and the wild berry migration industry. Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space, 54(1), 33-49.
Hernandez-Leon, R. (2005) The migration industry in the Mexico-US migratory system. UCLA CCPR Population Working Papers.
-----. (2008) Metropolitan migrants: The Migration of Urban Mexicans to the United States. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
-----. (2013) Conceptualizing the migration industry. In: Gammeltoft-Hansen, T. and Sørensen, N. N. (Eds.) The Migration Industry and the Commercialization of International Migration. London: Routledge pp. 42-62.
Jessop, B. (1996) Post-Fordism and the state. In: Bent, G. (Ed.) Comparative Welfare Systems. London: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 165-183.
Jones, C., Hesterly, W. S., & Borgatti, S. P. (1997) A general theory of network governance: Exchange conditions and social mechanisms. Academy of Management Review, 22 (4), 911-945.
Kaminer, M. )2019.) By the Sweat of Other Brows: Thai Migrant Labor and the Transformation of Israeli Settler Agriculture. PhD Dissertation, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
Kemp, A., & Raijman, R. (2008) Workers and Foreigners: The Political Economy of Labor Migration in Israel. Jerusalem. Jerusalem and tel Aviv:Van-Leer Institute and HaKibbutz HaMehuhad. (Hebrew).
Kemp, A., & Raijman, R. (2014) Bringing in state regulations, private brokers, and local employers: A meso‐level analysis of labor trafficking in Israel. International Migration Review, 48(3), 604-642.
Kendall, G. (1997) 'Governing at a distance': Anglo-Australian relations 1840-70. Australian Journal of Political Science, 32(2), 223-236.
Khan, M. (2019) Contested ground: Network governance in Australia's migration industry. International Migration, 57(3), 295-309.
King, R., Lulle, A., & Melossi, E. (2021) New perspectives on the agriculture–migration nexus. Journal of Rural Studies, 85, 52-58.
Kurlander, Y. (2019) The Marketization of Migration–-On the Emergence, Flourishment and Change of the Recruitment Industry for Agricultural Migrant Workers from
Thailand to Israel. Phd Dissertation, Haifa Hniversity. (Hebrew)
Kurlander, Y., and Cohen, A. (2022). BLAs as sites for the meso-level dynamics of institutionalization: A cross-sectoral comparison. Theoretical Inquiries in law, 23(2). (In press).
Kurlander, Y and Kaminer, M. (2020) "Permanent Workers in the Back Yard": Employing Thai agricultural labor migrants in the Israeli countryside. Horizons in Geography, 98,131-148. (Hebrew)
Kushnirovich, N., Raijman, R., & Barak‐Bianco, A. (2019) The impact of government regulation on recruitment process, rights, wages and working conditions of labor migrants in the Israeli construction sector. European Management Review, 16(4), 909-922.
Kyle, D. (2000) Transnational Peasants: Migrations, Networks, and Ethnicity in Andean Ecuador. Rutgers, NJ: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Light, I. (2013) The migration industry in the United States, 1882–1924. Migration Studies, 1(3), 258-275.
Lindquist, J. (2010) Labour recruitment, circuits of capital and gendered mobility: Reconceptualizing the Indonesian migration industry. Pacific Affairs, 83(1), 115-132.
Lindquist, J., Xiang, B., & Yeoh, B. S. (2012 Opening the black box of migration: Brokers, the organization of transnational mobility and the changing political economy in Asia. Pacific Affairs, 85(1), 7-19.
Menz, G. (2013) The neoliberalized state and the growth of the migration industry. In: Gammeltoft-Hansen, T. and Sørensen, N. N. (Eds.) (Ed) The Migration Industry and the Commercialization of International Migration. London: Routledge, pp. 126-145
Morris, L. (1998) Governing at a distance: The elaboration of controls in British immigration. International Migration Review, 32(4), 949-973.
Nyberg-Sørensen, N. N. (2013) Migration between social and criminal networks: Jumping the remains of the Honduran migration train. In Gammeltoft-Hansen, T. and N. Nyberg- Sorensen (Eds) The Migration Industry and the Commercialization of International Migration . London: Routledg, pp. 256-279.
Pereira, C., Pereira, A., Budal, A., Dahal, S., Daniel-Wrabetz, J., Meshelemiah, J., ... & Pires, R. P. (2021). ‘If you don't migrate, you're a nobody’: Migration recruitment networks and experiences of Nepalese farm workers in Portugal. Journal of Rural Studies, 88, 500-509. .
Pilowski, l. (1999) Present and absent: A study of manpower companies, their handling of migrant workers in Israel, and their relationship with the state. In Nathanson, R. and Achdut, L. (eds.) The New Worker: Wage Earners from Foreign Countries in Israel. Tel-Aviv: Hakibbutz Hameuchad Publishing House, pp.41-89. (Hebrew)
Piore, M. J. (1979) Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge Books.
Pittman, P. (2016) Alternative approaches to the governance of transnational labor recruitment. International Migration Review, 50(2), 269–314.
Raijman, R., & Kemp, A. (2016) The institutionalization of labor migration in Israel. Arbor, 192(777), a289.
Salt, J., & Stein, J. (1997) Migration as a business: The case of trafficking. International Migration, 35 (4), 467-494.
Sassen, S. (1988) The mobility of labor and capital: A study in international investment and labor flow. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Schwartz M. (1995) Unlimited Guarantees: History and Political Economy in the Cooperative Agriculture of Israel: The Purchasing Cooperatives, the System, and the Moshavim Before and After the Crisis. Jerusalem: Ben-Gurion Univer¬sity Press, 1995 (Hebrew)
Shafir, G., & Peled, Y. (2002) Being Israeli: The dynamics of multiple citizenship (Vol. 16). Cambridge University Press.
Shoham, S. (2017) Pickers and packers: Translocal narratives of returning Thai agriculture labour migrants from Israel (Doctoral dissertation, Master’s Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Global Studies. Berlin: Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin).
Spener, D. (2009) Some critical reflections on the migration industry concept. In Rio de Janeiro: Paper presented at the XXVIII International Congress of the Latin American Studies Association (Vol. 11).
Surak, K. (2011) States and Migration Industries in Taiwan, Japan and South Korea. EUI MWP
-----. (2013) Guestworkers: A taxonomy. New Left Review, (84), 84-102.
Tseng, Y. F., & Wang, H. Z. (2013) Governing migrant workers at a distance: Managing the temporary status of guestworkers in Taiwan. International Migration, 51(4), 1-19.
Van Eerbeek, P., & Hedberg, C. (2021) Chameleon brokers: A translocal take on migration industries in the Thai-Swedish wild berry business. Migration Studies, 9(3), 830-851.
Xiang, B., & Lindquist, J. (2014) Migration infrastructure. International Migration Review, 48, S122-S148.
Zhang, Q., & Axelsson, L. (2021) Channeling through bureaucracy: How migration intermediaries and state actors (re)shape Chinese migration to the Swedish restaurant industry. Geoforum, 123, 14-22.
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2022-07-19
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