New Forms of Voluntarism in Agricultural Employment: Insights from California
Keywords:
agriculture, labor, employment relations
Abstract
Employment violations at the bottom of the (food) supply chain are hard to detect and sue for, for a combination of reasons that render farmworkers vulnerable to seeing their rights violated when compared to other food chain workers (especially those higher up in the supply chain, such as waiting staff). To counter this trend, new forms of voluntarism have emerged claiming to tackle employment violations before they even arise. One such effort is the Multistakeholder Initiative (MSI), involving partnerships between different stakeholders, including participants from the private, public or civil society areas. With their numbers proliferating across many sectors featuring low-wage jobs, including agriculture, research studies into how MSIs fare in reaching their goals vary in their assessment. This article provides insights as to how one particular MSI — the Rural Solution Program — fares in its quest to advance conflict resolution mechanisms at a time when farmworkers see their rights violated and employers witness high levels of worker turnaround. The article asks whether it is the MSI itself that accounts for the resolution of conflict or whether other factors contribute to the situation, doing so viewed through the lenses of institutional theory and regulatory space theory. The article is, then, divided as follows: Section One sets the scene by exploring the reasons as to why farmworkers routinely see their rights being violated. Section Two, then, turns to reviewing the rise of new forms of voluntarism in employment relations, before reviewing the effects of certification programs on stakeholders. Section Three introduces the case-study MSI and outlines how the research for this article was conducted. Section Four, subsequently, presents the findings, before these are discussed using the aforementioned analytic framework of institutional theory and regulatory space theory — with particular attention being paid here to concepts of ‘crimmigration’ and ‘immployment’ — in the fifth and final section.
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Fischer-Daly, M. (2021) Human dignity and power: worker struggles against precarity in US agribusiness. Labor Studies Journal, 46(4), 369-393.
Flyvberg, B. (2006) Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qualitative Inquiry, 12(2), 219-245.
Gleeson, S. (2016) Precarious Claims. Oakland: University of California Press.
Gleeson, S. & Griffith, K. (2021) Employers as subjects of the immigration state: How the state foments employment insecurity for temporary immigrant workers. Law & Social Inquiry, 46(1), 92-115.
Glenn, E. N. (2015) Settler colonialism as a structure: A framework for comparative studies on U.S. race and gender formation. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 1(1), 52-72.
Gray, M. (2013) Labor and the Locavore. Oakland: University of California Press.
Griffith, K. L., & Gleeson, S. (2018) The precarity of temporality: How law inhibits immigrant worker claims. Comparative Labor & Policy Journal, 39(1), 111-142.
Gulbrandsen, L. H. (2009) The emergence and effectiveness of the Marine Stewardship Council. Marine Policy, 33(4), 654-660.
Gulbrandsen, L. H. (2008) Accountability arrangements in non-state standards organisations: instrumental design and imitation. Organisation, 15(4): 563-583.
Gulbrandsen, L. H. (2004) Overlapping public and private governance: Can forest certification fill the gaps in the global forest regime? Global Environmental Politics, 4(2), 75-99.
Hall, P. A., & Soskice, D. (2001) Varieties of Capitalism. The Institutional Foundations of Comparative Advantage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Heugens, P. P. M. A. R., & Lander, M. W. (2009) Structure! Agency! (And other quarrels): A meta-analysis of institutional theories of organization. Academy of Management Journal, 52(1), 61-85.
Hirschman, A. O. (1970) Exit, Voice and Loyalty. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Howell, C. (2021) Rethinking the role of the state in employment relations for a neoliberal era. ILR Review, 74(3), 739-772.
Hyman, R. (1989) The Political Economy of Industrial Relations. London: Macmillan.
Kelly, J. (1998) Rethinking Industrial Relations. London: Routledge.
Klooster, D. J. (2010) Standardizing sustainable development? The Forest Stewardship Council’s plantation policy review process as neoliberal environmental governance. Geoforum, 41(1), 117-129.
Klooster, D. J. (2005) Producing social nature in the Mexican countryside. Cultural Geographies, 12(3), 321-344.
Kuruvilla, S. (2020) Private Regulation of Labor Standards in Global Supply Chains. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
LeBaron, G., Edwards, R., Hunt, T., Sempéré, C. & Kyritsis, P. (2022) The Ineffectiveness of CSR: Understanding garment company commitments to living wages in global supply chains. New Political Economy, 27(1), 99-115.
Los Angeles Times Editorial Board (2021) Supreme Court undercuts California farm labor organizers. Available online: https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2021-06-23/supreme-court-california-farm-labor-union-organizers-cesar-chavez (Accessed 15 October 2022).
MacKenzie, R., & Martínez Lucio, M. (2019) Regulation, migration and the implications for industrial relations. Journal of Industrial Relations, 61(2), 176-197.
Martin, P., Hooker, B., Akhtar, M., & Stockton, M. (2014) How many workers are employed in California agriculture? California Agriculture, 71(1), 30-34.
Martin, P., & Mason, B. (2017) California’s ALRA and ALRB after 40 years. ARE Update, 20(4), 9-11.
McEwan, C., & Bek, D. (2009) The political economy of alternative trade: Social and environmental certification in the South African wine industry. Journal of Rural Studies, 25(3), 255-266.
Meuser, M., & Nagel, U. (2009) The Expert Interview and Changes in Knowledge Production. In: Bogner, A., Littig, B., Menz, W. (eds) Interviewing Experts. Research Methods Series. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230244276_2
Meyer, J. W., & Rowan, B. (1977) Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. American Journal of Sociology, 83(2), 340-363.
Mizruchi, M. S., & Fein, L. C. (1999) The social construction of organizational knowledge: A study of the uses of coercive, mimetic and normative isomorphism. Administrative Science Quarterly, 44(4), 653-683.
Montalvo, M., & Duara, N. (2022) In familiar refrain, United Farm Workers grapples with how to grow. Available at: https://calmatters.org/projects/united-farm-workers-union/ (Accessed 15 October 2022).
Moroz, P. W., Branzei, O., Parker, S. C., & Gamble, E. N. (2018) Imprinting with purpose: Prosocial opportunities and B Corporation certification. Journal of Business Venturing, 33(2), 117-129.
Mustchin, S., & Martínez Lucio, M. (2022) The fragmenting occupation of labour inspection and the degradation of regulatory and enforcement work inside the British state. Economic and Industrial Society, 0(0), 1-21.
Office of Governor Gavin Newsome. (2022) Law Expanding Farmworker Union Rights. Available at: https://www.gov.ca.gov/2022/09/28/alongside-farmworkers-at-the-state-capitol-governor-newsom-signs-law-expanding-farmworker-union-rights/ (Accessed 15 October 2022).
Paret, M., & Gleeson, S. (2016) Precarity and agency through a migration lens. Citizenship Studies, 20(3-4), 277-294.
Ponte, S., & Gibbon, P. (2005) Quality standards, conventions and the governance of global value chains. Economy and Society, 34(1), 1-31.
Romero, F. J. (2021) Minimal to Non-Existent: Safety Inspector Shortage Worsened in Pandemic, Leaving California Workers Vulnerable. Available at: https://www.kqed.org/news/11875988/minimal-to-non-existent-safety-inspector-shortage-worsened-in-pandemic-leaving-california-workers-vulnerable (Accessed 15 October 2022).
Schlyter, P., Stjernquist, I., & Bäckstrand, K. (2009) Not seeing the forest for the trees? The environmental effectiveness of forest certification in Sweden. Forest Policy and Economics, 11, 375-382.
Schmitter, P. (1974) Still the century of corporatism? The Review of Politics, 36(1), 85-131.
Schonfeld, Z. (2022) Biden backs California farmworkers union bill as pressure on Newsome grows. Available at: https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/3629225-biden-backs-farmworkers-union-bill-as-pressure-on-newsom-grows/ (Accessed 15 October 2022).
Sexsmith, K. (2022) The embodied precarity of year-around agricultural work: Health and safety risks among Latino/a immigrant dairy farmworkers in New York. Agriculture and Human Values, 39, 357-370.
Sexsmith, K. (2016) Exit, voice, constrained loyalty, and entrapment: Migrant farmworkers and the expression of discontent on New York dairy farms. Citizenship Studies, 20(3-4), 311-325.
Stavins, R. N. (2000) Market-based Environmental Policies. In Public Policies for Environmental Protection, (eds.), P. R., Portney and R.N. Stavins Washington: Re-
sources for the Future.
Stumpf, J. (2006) The crimmigration crisis: Ismmigrants, crime, and sovereign power. American University Law Review, 56(2), 367-419.
Terlaak, A., & Gong, Y. (2008) Vicarious learning and inferential accuracy in adoption processes. The Academy of Management Review, 33(4), 846-868.
Thomas, R. J. (1985) Citizenship, Gender, and Work: Social Organization of Industrial Agriculture. Berkeley: University of California Press.
United States Department of Agriculture’s Economic Research Service. (2022) Farm Labor. Available at: https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy/farm-labor/ (Accessed 15 October 2022).
United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2022) Occupational Employment and Wage Statistics. Available at: https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes452092.htm (Accessed 15 October 2022).
Wang, N., McDonald, A., Bateyko, D., & Tucker, E. (2022) American Dragnet:
Data-Driven Deportation in the 21st Century. Center on Privacy & Technology at Georgetown Law.
Williams, S., Heery, E., & Abbott, B. (2011) The emerging regime of civil regulation in work and employment relations. Human Relations, 64(7), 951-970.
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