Blue Diplomacy: Transboundary Efforts for Red Sea Coral Reefs
Keywords:
Transboundary Environmental Cooperation, Coral Reefs, Red Sea, Gulf of Aqaba
Abstract
Coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots vital for marine life and human livelihoods. Yet, they face existential threats from climate change and local stressors, with projections warning that up to 90% of global coral reefs could disappear by 2050 under current trends. The coral reefs of the northern Red Sea – particularly in the Gulf of Aqaba (GoA) offer a rare refuge, demonstrating remarkable resistance to thermal stress. However, this resilience to warming will only translate into long-term survival if local pressures such as pollution, overfishing, and coastal development are stringently managed. Effective conservation in this region transcends national boundaries, as the GoA is bordered by four countries (Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia) sharing interconnected marine ecosystems. This manuscript examines the critical role of Transboundary Environmental Cooperation (TEC) in safeguarding the GoA’s coral reefs as a global “reef refuge.” We review successful TEC examples in coral reef regions worldwide to draw lessons for the Red Sea. We then detail past and present transboundary initiatives in the Red Sea, highlighting achievements and chronic challenges – from regional conflicts (e.g. the war in Gaza) that have derailed joint efforts, to shifts in international support (such as the Trump administration’s funding cuts) that have left cooperation projects in limbo. In the discussion, we explore pathways to bolster regional environmental security, including open science and data-sharing platforms considering political fragmentation and active violent conflict and the proposal of a multi-nation UNESCO World Heritage Site in the GoA to institutionalize cooperation. These strategies could enhance environmental peacebuilding and resilience, ensuring that the Red Sea’s reefs of hope endure as a bastion for coral survival and regional stability.
References
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Banc-Prandi, G., Cerutti, J., and Fine, M. (2021) Recovery assessment of the branching coral Stylophora pistillata following copper contamination and depuration. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 162, 1-11.
Bellworthy, J., and Fine, M. (2017) Beyond peak summer temperatures, branching corals in the Gulf of Aqaba are resilient to thermal stress but sensitive to high light. Coral Reefs, 36:1071-1082.
Bruch, C., Jensen, D., Nakayama, M., and Unruh, J. (2019) The changing nature of conflict, peacebuilding, and environmental cooperation. Envtl. Law Reporter News & Analysis, 49:10134.
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Charlebois, P., and Griffiths, W. (2024) FSO SAFER oil spill risk Addressing the threat of a deteriorating super tanker. International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 2024.
Christie, P., Pietri, D.M., Stevenson, T.C., Pollnac, R., Knight, M., and White, A.T. (2016) Improving human and environmental conditions through the Coral Triangle Initiative: Progress and challenges. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 19:169-181.
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Donner, S.D., Skirving, W.J., Little, C.M., Oppenheimer. M., Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (2005) Global assessment of coral bleaching and required rates of adaptation under climate change. Global Change Biology, 11:2251-2265.
Evensen, N., Fine, M., Perna, G., Voolstra, C., and Barshis, D. (2021) Remarkably high and consistent tolerance of a Red Sea coral to acute and chronic thermal stress exposures. Limnology and Oceanography, 66: 1718-1729.
Feitelson, E. and Levy, N. (2006) The environmental aspects of reterritorialization: Environmental facets of Israeli–Arab agreements. Political Geography, 25:459-477
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Fine, M., Gildor, H., and Genin, A. (2013) A coral reef refuge in the Red Sea. Global Change Biology, 19:3640-3647.
Guzansky, Y., Eylon, Y., and Winter, O. (2024) Israel in the Red Sea: From Threats to Cooperation. INSS Insight:1-6.
Hall, E.R., Muller, E.M., Goulet,T., Bellworthy, J., Ritchie, K.B., and Fine, M. (2018) Eutrophication may compromise the resilience of the Red Sea coral Stylophora pistillata to global change. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 131:701-711.
Hardin, G. (1968) The Tragedy of the Commons. Science, 162:1243-1248.
Henley, B.J., McGregor, H.V., King, A.D., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Arzey, A.K., Karoly, D.J., Lough, J.M., DeCarlo, T.M., and Linsley, B.K. (2024) Highest ocean heat in four centuries places Great Barrier Reef in danger. Nature, 632:320-326.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Fine, M., A.l. Sawalmih, A., Ferrier-Pagès, C., ,Meibom, A., Ormond, R., and Voolstra, C.R. (2022) The Gulf of Aqaba's Reefs of Hope: Assigning World Heritage Status to the Coral Reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba, Northern Red Sea. Frontiers Policy Labs.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Ortiz, J.C., and Dove, S. (2011) The future of coral reefs. Science, 334:1494.
Horigue, V., Tuda, A., and Maina, J. (2025) Design and management considerations for the Kenya–Tanzania marine transboundary conservation area. Conservation Biology, e14342.
Hughes, T.P., Barnes, M.L., Bellwood, D.R., Cinner, J.E., Cumming, G.S., Jackson, J.B.C., Kleypas, J., van de Leemput, I.A., Lough, J.M., Morrison, T.H., Palumbi, S.R., van Nes, E.H., and Scheffer, M. (2017) Coral reefs in the Anthropocene. Nature, 546:82-90.
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Initiative CC (2013) Summary of CCI Summit outcomes: Outcomes of the Caribbean Summit of Political and Business Leaders to launch the second phase of the Caribbean Challenge Initiative (CCI). Necker Island, British Virgin Islands: Caribbean Challenge Initiative (CCI).
Kedem, R., Feitelson, E., Halasah, S., and Teff-Seker, Y. (2024a) Toward a typology of environmental cooperation in postconflict settings: The case of Jordan and Israel. Global Environmental Politics, 24:138-154.
Kedem, R., Halasah, S., Ide, T., Feitelson, E. (2024b) The role of environmental professionals in post-conflict transboundary cooperation: The cases of Israel and Jordan. Environmental Science & Policy, 151:103623.
Kleinhaus, K., Al-Sawalmih, A., Barshis, D.J., Genin, A., Grace, L.N., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Loya, Y., Meibom, A., Osman, E.O., Ruch, J-D, Shaked, Y., Voolstra, C.R., Zvuloni, A., and Fine, M. (2020) Science, diplomacy, and the Red Sea’s unique coral reef: It’s Time for Action. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7, 1-9.
Knowles, J.E., Doyle, E., Schill, S.R., Roth, L.M., Milam, A., and Raber, G.T. (2015) Establishing a marine conservation baseline for the insular Caribbean. Marine Policy, 60:84-97.
Kochman-Gino, Na-R., and Fine, M. (2023) Reef building corals show resilience to the hottest marine heatwave on record in the Gulf of Aqaba. Frontiers in Marine Science, 10, 1-13.
Kotb, M.A .(2010) The Status of Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden: 2009. PERSGA Technical Series Number 16, Jeddah.
Krueger, T., Horwitz, N., Bodin, J., Giovani, M., Escrig, S., Meibom, A., and Fine, M. (2017) Common reef-building coral in the Northern Red Sea resistant to elevated temperature and acidification. Royal Society Open Science, 4, 170038.
Kuempel, C.D., Tulloch, V.J., Giffin, A.L., Simmons, B.A., Hagger, V., Phua, C., and Hoegh‐Guldberg, O. (2022) Identifying management opportunities to combat climate, land, and marine threats across less climate exposed coral reefs. Conservation Biology, 36:e13856.
Lahl, R., Ferse, S., and Bleischwitz, R. (2023) Reflecting on a research institute’s role as a tool for ocean science diplomacy—ZMT’s Mission to Collaborate Science, Technology and Innovation Diplomacy in Developing Countries: Perceptions and Practice. In: Ittekkot, V., and Baweja, J.K. (eds) Science, Technology and Innovation Diplomacy in Developing Countries. Research for Development. Springer, Singapore pp311-328. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6802-0_20Springer.
Lederach, J.P. (1997) Sustainable reconciliation in divided societies. Washington, DC: USIP
Lyons, M., Roelfsema, C., Kennedy, E., Kovacs, E., Borrego‐Acevedo, R., Markey, K., Roe. M,, Yuwono, D., Harris, D., and Phinn, S. (2020) Mapping the world's coral reefs using a global multiscale earth observation framework. Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation, 6:557-568.
Mackelworth, P., Seker, Y., Fernández, T., Marquess, M., Alves, F., D'Anna, G., Fa, D., Goldborough, D., Kyriazi, Z., Pita, C., Portman, M., Rumes, B., Warr, S., and Holcer, D. (2019) Geopolitics and marine conservation: Synergies and conflicts. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6, 1-17.
Martin, A., McGuire, S., and Sullivan, S. (2013) Global environmental justice and biodiversity conservation. The Geographical Journal, 179:122-131
McField, M., Drysdale, I., Flores, M.R., Pott, R., Petersen, A.G. (2017) Collaborative, adaptive management of the Mesoamerican Reef. in: Nunes, P.A.L.D., Svensson, L. E. and Markandya, A. (eds.), Handbook on the Economics and Management of Sustainable Oceans, Edward Elgar Publishing, pp201-220.
McManus, J. (1994) Reefbase - A Global Database of Coral-Reef Systems and Their Resources. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 28:133-133.
Osman, E.O., Smith, D.J., Ziegler, M., Kürten, B., Conrad, C., El‐Haddad, K.M., Voolstra, C.R., and Suggett, D.J. ( 2018) Thermal refugia against coral bleaching throughout the northern Red Sea. Glob. Chang. Biol., 24, e474–e484.
Pietri, D.M., Stevenson, T.C., and Christie, P. (2015) The Coral Triangle Initiative and regional exchanges: Strengthening capacity through a regional learning network. Global Environmental Change, 33:165-176.
Portman, M.E., and Teff-Seker, Y. (2017) Factors of success and failure for transboundary environmental cooperation: Projects in the Gulf of Aqaba. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning 19:810-826.
Ramachandran R, Bugbee K, Murphy K (2021) From open data to open science. Earth and Space Science 8:e2020EA001562.
Reimer, J.D., Peixoto, R.S., Davies, S.W., Traylor-Knowles, N., Short, M.L., Cabral-Tena, R.A., Burt, J.A., Pessoa, I., Banaszak, A.T., and Winters, R.S. (2024) The fourth global coral bleaching event: Where do we go from here? Coral Reefs, 43:1121-1125.
Savary, R., Barshis, D., Voolstra, C., Cardenas, A., Evensen, N., Banc-Prandi, G., Fine, M., and Meibom, A. (2021) Fast and pervasive transcriptomic resilience and acclimation of extremely heat-tolerant coral holobionts from the northern Red Sea. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118.
Simón, L., Grevi, G., Amira-Fernández, H. (2022) NATO and The South: A Tale of Three Futures. IOS Press.
Stanford University (2009) Marine scientists participate in Israeli-Jordanian project to protect Gulf Of Aqaba's Fragile Ecosystem. ScienceDaily
Tuda, A.O., Kark, S., Newton, A. (2019) Exploring the prospects for adaptive governance in marine transboundary conservation in East Africa. Marine Policy, 104:75-84.
UNESCO PDotKoSAt (2024) Coral Reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. UNESCO World Heritage Convention.
Wicquart, J., Gudka, M., Obura, D., Logan, M., Staub, F., Souter ,D., and Planes, S. (2022) A workflow to integrate ecological monitoring data from different sources. Ecological Informatics, 68.
Winckler, O. (2021) Missed opportunity? Jordan’s [insufficient] economic dividends from the peace treaty with Israel. Middle Eastern Studies, 57:429-442.
Andréfouët, S., Brisset, M., Georget, S., and Gilbert, A. (2024) Evaluation of the Allen Coral Atlas benthic habitat map product for New Caledonia using representative habitat observations from a multi-species fishery assessment. Coral Reefs, 43:523-540.
Anugrah, A.P., and Putra, B. (2020) Implementation of coral triangle initiative on coral reefs, fisheries, and food security (CTI-CFF) in Indonesia and Philippines. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 575:012154.
Arieli, T. (2012) Borders of peace in policy and practice: National and local perspectives of Israel-Jordan border management. Geopolitics, 17:658-680.
Arieli, T,. and Cohen, N. (2013) Policy entrepreneurs and post-conflict cross-border cooperation: A conceptual framework and the Israeli–Jordanian case. Policy Sciences, 46:237-256.
Arrivillaga, A., Arreola, M.E. (2016) The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System in Mackelworth, P. (ed) Marine Transboundary Conservation and Protected Areas. Routledge, 268-282.
Banc-Prandi, G., and Fine, M. (2019) Copper enrichment reduces thermal tolerance of the highly resistant Red Sea coral Stylophora pistillata. Coral Reefs, 38:285-296.
Banc-Prandi, G., Cerutti, J., and Fine, M. (2021) Recovery assessment of the branching coral Stylophora pistillata following copper contamination and depuration. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 162, 1-11.
Bellworthy, J., and Fine, M. (2017) Beyond peak summer temperatures, branching corals in the Gulf of Aqaba are resilient to thermal stress but sensitive to high light. Coral Reefs, 36:1071-1082.
Bruch, C., Jensen, D., Nakayama, M., and Unruh, J. (2019) The changing nature of conflict, peacebuilding, and environmental cooperation. Envtl. Law Reporter News & Analysis, 49:10134.
Burke, L., Reytar, K., Spalding, M., and Perry, A. (2011) Reefs at risk revisited. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute (WRI).
Caribbean Biodiversity Fund (2024) Caribbean Biodiversity Fund: 2023 annual report. Kingston, Jamaica: Caribbean Biodiversity Fund (CBF).
Charlebois, P., and Griffiths, W. (2024) FSO SAFER oil spill risk Addressing the threat of a deteriorating super tanker. International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings 2024.
Christie, P., Pietri, D.M., Stevenson, T.C., Pollnac, R., Knight, M., and White, A.T. (2016) Improving human and environmental conditions through the Coral Triangle Initiative: Progress and challenges. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 19:169-181.
Crosby, M., Abu-Hilal, A., Al-Homoud, A., Erez, J., and Ortal, R. (2000) Interactions among scientists, managers and the public in defining research priorities and management strategies for marine and coastal resources: Is the Red Sea Marine Peace Park a new paradigm? Water Air and Soil Pollution, 123:581-594.
Crosby, M.P., Al-Bashir, B., Badran, M., Dweiri, S., Ortal, R., Ottolenghi, M., and Perevolotsky, A. (2002) The Red Sea Marine Peace Park: Early lessons learned from a unique trans-boundary cooperative research, monitoring and management program. Proceedings of IUCN/WCPA-EA-4 Taipei Conference:18-23.
Dinerstein, E., Vynne, C., Sala, E., Joshi, A.R., Fernando, S., Lovejoy, T.E., Mayorga, J., Olson, D., Asner, G.P., and Baillie, J.E. (2019) A global deal for nature: Guiding principles, milestones, and targets. Science Advances, 5:eaaw2869.
Donner, S.D., Skirving, W.J., Little, C.M., Oppenheimer. M., Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (2005) Global assessment of coral bleaching and required rates of adaptation under climate change. Global Change Biology, 11:2251-2265.
Evensen, N., Fine, M., Perna, G., Voolstra, C., and Barshis, D. (2021) Remarkably high and consistent tolerance of a Red Sea coral to acute and chronic thermal stress exposures. Limnology and Oceanography, 66: 1718-1729.
Feitelson, E. and Levy, N. (2006) The environmental aspects of reterritorialization: Environmental facets of Israeli–Arab agreements. Political Geography, 25:459-477
Fine, M., Cinar, M., Voolstra, C., Safa, A., Rinkevich, B., Laffoley, D., Hilmi, N., and Allemand, D. (2019) Coral reefs of the Red Sea - Challenges and potential solutions. Regional Studies in Marine Science, 25.
Fine, M., Gildor, H., and Genin, A. (2013) A coral reef refuge in the Red Sea. Global Change Biology, 19:3640-3647.
Guzansky, Y., Eylon, Y., and Winter, O. (2024) Israel in the Red Sea: From Threats to Cooperation. INSS Insight:1-6.
Hall, E.R., Muller, E.M., Goulet,T., Bellworthy, J., Ritchie, K.B., and Fine, M. (2018) Eutrophication may compromise the resilience of the Red Sea coral Stylophora pistillata to global change. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 131:701-711.
Hardin, G. (1968) The Tragedy of the Commons. Science, 162:1243-1248.
Henley, B.J., McGregor, H.V., King, A.D., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Arzey, A.K., Karoly, D.J., Lough, J.M., DeCarlo, T.M., and Linsley, B.K. (2024) Highest ocean heat in four centuries places Great Barrier Reef in danger. Nature, 632:320-326.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Fine, M., A.l. Sawalmih, A., Ferrier-Pagès, C., ,Meibom, A., Ormond, R., and Voolstra, C.R. (2022) The Gulf of Aqaba's Reefs of Hope: Assigning World Heritage Status to the Coral Reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba, Northern Red Sea. Frontiers Policy Labs.
Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Ortiz, J.C., and Dove, S. (2011) The future of coral reefs. Science, 334:1494.
Horigue, V., Tuda, A., and Maina, J. (2025) Design and management considerations for the Kenya–Tanzania marine transboundary conservation area. Conservation Biology, e14342.
Hughes, T.P., Barnes, M.L., Bellwood, D.R., Cinner, J.E., Cumming, G.S., Jackson, J.B.C., Kleypas, J., van de Leemput, I.A., Lough, J.M., Morrison, T.H., Palumbi, S.R., van Nes, E.H., and Scheffer, M. (2017) Coral reefs in the Anthropocene. Nature, 546:82-90.
ICRI (2024) Resolution for the Red Sea Region, Red Sea Coral Reef Forum, 38th ICRI General Meeting, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. International Coral Reef Initiative.
Initiative CC (2013) Summary of CCI Summit outcomes: Outcomes of the Caribbean Summit of Political and Business Leaders to launch the second phase of the Caribbean Challenge Initiative (CCI). Necker Island, British Virgin Islands: Caribbean Challenge Initiative (CCI).
Kedem, R., Feitelson, E., Halasah, S., and Teff-Seker, Y. (2024a) Toward a typology of environmental cooperation in postconflict settings: The case of Jordan and Israel. Global Environmental Politics, 24:138-154.
Kedem, R., Halasah, S., Ide, T., Feitelson, E. (2024b) The role of environmental professionals in post-conflict transboundary cooperation: The cases of Israel and Jordan. Environmental Science & Policy, 151:103623.
Kleinhaus, K., Al-Sawalmih, A., Barshis, D.J., Genin, A., Grace, L.N., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Loya, Y., Meibom, A., Osman, E.O., Ruch, J-D, Shaked, Y., Voolstra, C.R., Zvuloni, A., and Fine, M. (2020) Science, diplomacy, and the Red Sea’s unique coral reef: It’s Time for Action. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7, 1-9.
Knowles, J.E., Doyle, E., Schill, S.R., Roth, L.M., Milam, A., and Raber, G.T. (2015) Establishing a marine conservation baseline for the insular Caribbean. Marine Policy, 60:84-97.
Kochman-Gino, Na-R., and Fine, M. (2023) Reef building corals show resilience to the hottest marine heatwave on record in the Gulf of Aqaba. Frontiers in Marine Science, 10, 1-13.
Kotb, M.A .(2010) The Status of Coral Reefs in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden: 2009. PERSGA Technical Series Number 16, Jeddah.
Krueger, T., Horwitz, N., Bodin, J., Giovani, M., Escrig, S., Meibom, A., and Fine, M. (2017) Common reef-building coral in the Northern Red Sea resistant to elevated temperature and acidification. Royal Society Open Science, 4, 170038.
Kuempel, C.D., Tulloch, V.J., Giffin, A.L., Simmons, B.A., Hagger, V., Phua, C., and Hoegh‐Guldberg, O. (2022) Identifying management opportunities to combat climate, land, and marine threats across less climate exposed coral reefs. Conservation Biology, 36:e13856.
Lahl, R., Ferse, S., and Bleischwitz, R. (2023) Reflecting on a research institute’s role as a tool for ocean science diplomacy—ZMT’s Mission to Collaborate Science, Technology and Innovation Diplomacy in Developing Countries: Perceptions and Practice. In: Ittekkot, V., and Baweja, J.K. (eds) Science, Technology and Innovation Diplomacy in Developing Countries. Research for Development. Springer, Singapore pp311-328. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6802-0_20Springer.
Lederach, J.P. (1997) Sustainable reconciliation in divided societies. Washington, DC: USIP
Lyons, M., Roelfsema, C., Kennedy, E., Kovacs, E., Borrego‐Acevedo, R., Markey, K., Roe. M,, Yuwono, D., Harris, D., and Phinn, S. (2020) Mapping the world's coral reefs using a global multiscale earth observation framework. Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation, 6:557-568.
Mackelworth, P., Seker, Y., Fernández, T., Marquess, M., Alves, F., D'Anna, G., Fa, D., Goldborough, D., Kyriazi, Z., Pita, C., Portman, M., Rumes, B., Warr, S., and Holcer, D. (2019) Geopolitics and marine conservation: Synergies and conflicts. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6, 1-17.
Martin, A., McGuire, S., and Sullivan, S. (2013) Global environmental justice and biodiversity conservation. The Geographical Journal, 179:122-131
McField, M., Drysdale, I., Flores, M.R., Pott, R., Petersen, A.G. (2017) Collaborative, adaptive management of the Mesoamerican Reef. in: Nunes, P.A.L.D., Svensson, L. E. and Markandya, A. (eds.), Handbook on the Economics and Management of Sustainable Oceans, Edward Elgar Publishing, pp201-220.
McManus, J. (1994) Reefbase - A Global Database of Coral-Reef Systems and Their Resources. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 28:133-133.
Osman, E.O., Smith, D.J., Ziegler, M., Kürten, B., Conrad, C., El‐Haddad, K.M., Voolstra, C.R., and Suggett, D.J. ( 2018) Thermal refugia against coral bleaching throughout the northern Red Sea. Glob. Chang. Biol., 24, e474–e484.
Pietri, D.M., Stevenson, T.C., and Christie, P. (2015) The Coral Triangle Initiative and regional exchanges: Strengthening capacity through a regional learning network. Global Environmental Change, 33:165-176.
Portman, M.E., and Teff-Seker, Y. (2017) Factors of success and failure for transboundary environmental cooperation: Projects in the Gulf of Aqaba. Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning 19:810-826.
Ramachandran R, Bugbee K, Murphy K (2021) From open data to open science. Earth and Space Science 8:e2020EA001562.
Reimer, J.D., Peixoto, R.S., Davies, S.W., Traylor-Knowles, N., Short, M.L., Cabral-Tena, R.A., Burt, J.A., Pessoa, I., Banaszak, A.T., and Winters, R.S. (2024) The fourth global coral bleaching event: Where do we go from here? Coral Reefs, 43:1121-1125.
Savary, R., Barshis, D., Voolstra, C., Cardenas, A., Evensen, N., Banc-Prandi, G., Fine, M., and Meibom, A. (2021) Fast and pervasive transcriptomic resilience and acclimation of extremely heat-tolerant coral holobionts from the northern Red Sea. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118.
Simón, L., Grevi, G., Amira-Fernández, H. (2022) NATO and The South: A Tale of Three Futures. IOS Press.
Stanford University (2009) Marine scientists participate in Israeli-Jordanian project to protect Gulf Of Aqaba's Fragile Ecosystem. ScienceDaily
Tuda, A.O., Kark, S., Newton, A. (2019) Exploring the prospects for adaptive governance in marine transboundary conservation in East Africa. Marine Policy, 104:75-84.
UNESCO PDotKoSAt (2024) Coral Reefs of the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. UNESCO World Heritage Convention.
Wicquart, J., Gudka, M., Obura, D., Logan, M., Staub, F., Souter ,D., and Planes, S. (2022) A workflow to integrate ecological monitoring data from different sources. Ecological Informatics, 68.
Winckler, O. (2021) Missed opportunity? Jordan’s [insufficient] economic dividends from the peace treaty with Israel. Middle Eastern Studies, 57:429-442.
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2026-05-01
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