Bedouin on the Borders: The impact of political-geographical borders on settlement of Bedouin in Galilee during the British Mandate, 1918-1948
Keywords:
Administrative agreements and laws; Bedouin; borders; British Mandate; Galilee
Abstract
This article examines the significance of political-geographical borders enforced by the British Mandatory government in Palestine between the years 1918-1948, and their implications for settlement of the Bedouin population in permanent locations in the Galilee, northern Israel. The British Mandatory government in Palestine enacted administrative agreements and laws aimed at controlling the local population, inter alia, in order to regulate the land resources and utilize them effectively for its interests. During the same period, Zionist institutions purchased land considered essential to the Bedouin, causing Bedouin to be pushed-off of their grazing and agriculture lands. All of these contributed to the settlement of Bedouin into permanent localities in the Galilee. This article is based on archival sources and research literature, as well as on 14 in-depth interviews with Bedouin residents of the Galilee conducted between 2013-2015.
References
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Ilan, T. (1984) Mei Marom, the estate of Abu family, before Yesud HaMa’ala, BaMa’archa, 278 (1), 6-11. (Hebrew)
Kacen, L. and Krumer-Nevo, M. (eds.) (2010) Data Analysis in Qualitative Research. Ben-Gurion University. (Hebrew)
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-----. (2012) Empire, state, and the Bedouin of the Middle East, past and present: A comparative study of land and settlement policies. Middle East Studies, 48 (4), 487-510.
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-----. (1978) The ecology and politics of nomadic pastoralists in the Middle East. In Weissleder, W. (ed.) The Nomadic Alternative: Modes and Models of Interaction in the African-Asian Deserts and Steppes. Germany: Walter de Gruyter, 107-122.
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Ashkenazi, T. (2000) The Bedouin in the Land of Israel. Jerusalem: Ariel. (Hebrew)
Aytekin, A. (2012) Peasant protest in the Late Ottoman Empire: Moral economy, revolt, and the Tanzimat Reforms. International Review of Social History, 57 (2), 191-227.
Barfield, T. (2020) Nomads and States in Comparative Perspective” in Levine, J.. (ed.) Nomad-State Relationships in International Relations: Before and After Borders. Denmark: Cham Springer, 19-44.
Barron, J. B. (1923) Palestine: Report and General Abstracts of the Census of 1922. Jerusalem: Greek Convent.
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Citrin, Y. (2001/2) The Beginnings of Jewish Settlement in Hula Valley in the Late 19th Century. Shaanan: Yearbook of the Religious College of Education, 8 (1), 195-205. (Hebrew)
Conder, R. C. (1880) Palestine Exploration Map. London: Committee of Palestine Exploration Fund.
Dagan, S. and Kozviner, A. (1993) Palheib: Bedouin in the Palmach in 1948. Tel Aviv: Irgun Chavrei ha-Haganah. (Hebrew)
Denzin, N. K., and Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research (3rd ed.), Sage, 1-32.
Deringil, S. (2003) "They live in a state of nomadism and savagery": The Late Ottoman Empire and the post-colonial debate. Comparative studies in Society and History, 45 (2), 311-342.
Eickelman, D. F. (1998) The Middle East and Central Asia: An Anthropological Approach. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
El-Eini, I. M. R. (1999) British forestry policy in Mandate Palestine, 1929-1948: Aims and realities. Middle Eastern Studies, 35 (3), 72-155.
Falah, G. (1983) The Role of the British Administration in the Sedenterization of the Bedouin Tribes in Northern Palestine 1918-1948. Working Paper. University of Durham, Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, UK, Durham.
-----. (1990) The evolution of semi-nomadism in non-desert environment: The Case of Galilee in the 19th Century. GeoJournal, 21 (4), 397-410.
-----. (1991) Pre-state Jewish colonization in northern Palestine and its impact on local Bedouin sedentarization, 1914-1948. Journal of Historical Geography, 17 (3), 289-309.
Findley, C. (1986) The evolution of the system of provincial administration as viewed from the center. In Kushner, D. (ed.) Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social, and Economic Transformation. Jerusalem: Yad Yitzhak Ben Zvi, 3-29.
Fletcher, S. G. R. (2015) British Imperialism and “the Tribal Question”: Desert Administration and Nomadic Societies in the Middle East, 1919-1936. Oxford University Scholarship Online.
Gavish, D. (1992) The Ghor Mudawwara Agreement and land settlement in Eretz Israel. In Reichman, S. and Kark, R. (eds.) Studies in Geography of Israel, 13, Jerusalem, The Society for Exploration of Israel, 13-22. (Hebrew)
Gelber, Y. (2011) Nation and History: Israeli Historiography between Zionism and Post-Zionism. London: Vallentine Mitchell.
Gellner, E. (1983) Nations and Nationalism. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
-----. (1997) Nationalism, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
Gerber, H. (1986) A new look at the Tanzimat: The Case of the Province of Jerusalem. In Kushner, D. (ed.) Palestine in the Late Ottoman Period: Political, Social, and Economic Transformation. Jerusalem: Yad Yitzhak Ben Zvi, 30-45.
Glubb, B. J. (June 5, 1926) A letter from Glubb to Kitching (in the home office). In Glubb, B. J. (Collection) Middle Eastern Center Archive, Oxford: St Antony’s College.
Government of Palestine (1920, 1926) The Laws of Palestine: Forests Ordinance, 1920, 1926. The National Archives (NAL), (London) Colonial Office (CO), 733/60/5-20.
-----. (1926) The Laws of Palestine: Expropriation Land Ordinance, 1926. NAL, CO 733/60/59971.
-----. (1926-1936) The Laws of Palestine: Collective Punishments Ordinances No. 36. NAL, CO 733/303/3.
-----. (1928) Settlement survey in 1928. State Archives of Israel (SAI), Physical Identification (PI): 4349/35.
-----. (1933) Expropriation land for public purposes, 1933. Valley of Maayanot Archives - Beisan Valley (VMA), PI: 560/313/60.
-----. (1933) Kadoorie Agricultural School, August 20, 1933. VMA, PI: 560/313/77. (Hebrew)
-----. (1937) Public works, civil Haifa. SAI, PI: RG/12/M/5141/2.
-----. (1942) Bedouin Control Ordinance, No. 18 of 1942. NAL, CO 733/448.
-----. (1942) Bedouin Control Ordinance, No. 18 of 1942. SAI, PI: 552/15, original symbol: Y/58/42.
-----. (February 2, 1926) Border Crossings on 2 February 1926. SAI, Jerusalem PI: M 4349/34.
-----. (February 2, 1926) The Laws of Palestine: Border Pass Agreement 1926. NAL, CO 733/60/5-20.
-----. (February 9, 1947) Arab Higher Committee: Sarona Lands, SAI, PI: 320/30.
-----. (March 19, 1946) Arab Al-Subayh - Grazing in the Lands of Mount Tabor. SAI, PI: 313/77.
-----. (May 18, 1947) Arab Higher Committee: Sarona Lands. SAI (Arabic), PI: P/320/28.
-----. (May 31, 1945) The Laws of Palestine: Border Pass Agreement. NAL, CO 733/60/5-20.
-----. (September 14, 1933) Ghor Mudawwara Lands Agreement, 19 November 1921, The Palestine Gazette, 372, Jerusalem: Government Printer, 1311-1314, https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15537435&increment=0
-----. (September 14, 1933) Land Settlement Ordinances, 1928-1933. The Palestine Gazette, 372, Jerusalem: Government Printer, 1315-1320, https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15537435&increment=0.
Hobart, M. (ed.) (1993) Anthropological Critique of Development: The Growth of Ignorance. London: Routledge.
Ibn Khaldun, A. A. (2010) Muqaddimah Ibn Khaldun. Egypt: Jazirat al-Ward. (Arabic)
Ilan, T. (1984) Mei Marom, the estate of Abu family, before Yesud HaMa’ala, BaMa’archa, 278 (1), 6-11. (Hebrew)
Kacen, L. and Krumer-Nevo, M. (eds.) (2010) Data Analysis in Qualitative Research. Ben-Gurion University. (Hebrew)
Kark, R. and Frantzman, J. S. (2010) Bedouin, Abdul Hamid II, British Land Settlement, and Zionism: The Baysan Valley and Sub-district 1831-1948. Israel Studies, 15 (2), 49-79.
-----. (2012) Empire, state, and the Bedouin of the Middle East, past and present: A comparative study of land and settlement policies. Middle East Studies, 48 (4), 487-510.
Levin J., de Carvalho, G. et al. (2020) Before and after borders: The nomadic challenge to sovereign territoriality. In Levin, J. (ed.) Nomad-State Relationships in International Relations: Before and After Borders, Denmark: Springer Cham, 63-76.
Lewis, N. N. (1955) The Frontier of Settlement in Syria 1800-1950. International Affairs, 31 (1), 48-60.
Lieblich, A., Tuval-Mashiach, R., and Zilber, T. (1998) Narrative Research: Reading, Analysis, and Interpretation. California: Sage.
Ma’oz, M. (1968) Ottoman Reform in Syria and Palestine 1840-1861: The Impact of the Tanzimat on Politics and Society. Oxford, UK: Clarendon.
Marx, E. (1974) The Bedouin Society in the Negev. Tel Aviv: Reshafim. (Hebrew)
-----. (1978) The ecology and politics of nomadic pastoralists in the Middle East. In Weissleder, W. (ed.) The Nomadic Alternative: Modes and Models of Interaction in the African-Asian Deserts and Steppes. Germany: Walter de Gruyter, 107-122.
-----. (1988) “The ecological base of Bedouin society” in Eini, Y. and Orion, E. (eds.) The Bedouin-Notes and Papers. Sde Boker: Center for Social Research, 73-95. (Hebrew)
Mazarib, T. (2022) From Desert to Town: The Integration of Bedouin into Arab Fellahin Villages and Towns in the Galilee, 1700-2020. UK: Sussex Academic Press.
Meir, A. (1988) Nomads and the state: The spatial dynamics of centrifugal and centripetal forces among the Israeli Negev Bedouin. Political Geography Quarterly, 7 (3), 251-270.
Mills, E. (1932) Census of Palestine, 1931. Jerusalem: Greek Convent.
Naor, M. (ed.) (1993) Jezreel Valley, 1900-1967: Sources, Summaries, Selected Episodes and Material. Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben Tzvi. (Hebrew)
Oren-Nordheim, M. (2005) Land Purchase by Jews in Jezreel Valley, 1910-1948. Horizons in Geography, 63 (1), 32-56. (Hebrew)
Peake, G. F. (1934) A History of Trans-Jordan and its Ttribes. Jerusalem: Dar al-Aytam al-Islamiyya. (Arabic)
Peters, E. L. (1990) The Bedouin of Cyrenaica: Studies in Personal and Corporate Power. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University.
Riessman, C. K. (2008) Narrative Methods for the Human Sciences. Los Angeles: Sage.
Rogan, E. (June 3, 2021) Neither Pro-Zionist nor Pro-Arab, but Pro-Empire: A Re-assessment of British Policy in the Palestine Mandate. Available at https://balfourproject.org/eugene-rogan.
Schumpeter, J. A. (1952) Imperialism and Social Classes. World Politics, 4 (3), 402-341.
Seltenreich, Y. (2006) Cultural encounters? Conception of the Lower Galilee colonies by officials of the JCA and PJCA. Katedrah, 120 (1), 107-134. (Hebrew)
Sharon, M. (1971) The Bedouin and the Land of Israel under Islamic Rule. The Bedouins: Notes and Articles, 2 (1) Sde Boker: Center for Social Research, 8-24. (Hebrew)
Smith, A. (2003) Chosen Peoples: Sacred Sources of National Identity. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Stewart, H. F. (2012) The Structure of Bedouin Society in the Negev: Emanuel Marx’s Bedouin of the Negev Revisited. In Hazan, H. et al. (eds.) Serendipity in Anthropological Research. UK: Ashgate, 257-290.
Taqosh, S. M. (1995) The Ottomans from the Establishment of the State to the Overthrow of the Caliph. Beirut: Dar beit al-Mhrusa. (Arabic)
Touma, E. (1983) Palestine in the Ottoman Period. Al-Quds: Dar al-Fajr. (Arabic))
Velud, C. (2000) French Mandate policy in the Syrian steppe. In Mundy, M. and Musallam, B. (eds.) The Transformation of Nomadic Society in the Arab East. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 63-81.
Widzer, M. (2015) Becoming a State: Zionist and Palestinian Movement for National Liberation. PhD diss., University of Denver.
Zakariyya, W. A. (1983) Tribes of Al-Sham. Damascus: Dar al-Fikr. (Arabic)
Zakzouk, H. M. (2003) General Islamic Encyclopedia. Egypt: Wizart al-Awqaf. (Arabic)
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